Food for Thought©

The History of Bread            

By Arlene Wright-Correll

(paintings by Arlene Wright-Correll)

I love bread.  I love eating it. I love the scent of it.  Best of all I love making it.  Years ago, when

my hands were younger, I made all our bread by the kneading method.  In 1999, I treated myself to a bread machine and mostly all our bread is made that way now.  

When I was a young mother, living in Northern NY, and specifically, in the little hamlet of Ft. Jackson, I made bread, doughnuts and pies for the small general store at the intersection by the river.  All the bachelor and widower farmers were my customers.  This was my “egg or pin” money as the saying went in those days.

Bread, in one form or another, has been one of the principal forms of food for man from earliest times.  Back in the Stone Age, people made solid cakes from stone-crushed barley and wheat. A millstone used for grinding corn has been found, that is thought to be 7,500 years old. Once man knew how to sow and reap cereals it may have been one of the chief causes which led man to dwell in communities, rather than to live a wandering life hunting and herding cattle.

About 3000 B.C. In Egypt, homage was paid to Osiris, the god of grain. The workers who built the pyramids were paid in bread.

found in ancient Egyptian tombs.  This bas-relief, from about 2650 B.C. shows the harvesting grain in Ancient Egypt.

grains of wheat which ripened in those ancient summers under the Pharaohs. Wheat has been found in pits where human settlements flourished 8,000 years ago.

Here are ancient Egyptian word-pictures, or hieroglyphs, concerning bread.

On left was the symbol for grain.

On the right was the symbol for large loaves of bread.

Bread, both leavened and unleavened, is mentioned in the Bible many times. In the Old Testament times, all the evidence points to the fact that bread-making, preparing the grain, making the bread and baking it, was the women's work, but in the palaces of kings and princes and in large households, the bakers' duties would be specialized.

About 1680 D.C. bread was leavened, that is, an agent in the form of a 'barm' was added to the dough which caused the mixture to rise in the shape of our familiar loaf. The hurried departure of the Israelites from Egypt, described in the Book of Exodus in the Bible, prevented their bread being leavened as usual, thus the Jews today commemorate this event by eating unleavened bread on special occasions.

The Egyptian grammarian and philosopher Athenaeus, who lived in the third century A.D., has handed down to us considerable knowledge about bread and baking in those days.

He wrote that the best bakers were from Phoenicia or Lydia, and the best bread-makers from Cappadocia. He gives us a list of the sorts of bread common in his time-leavened and unleavened loaves; loaves made from the best wheat flour; loaves made from groats, or rye, and some from acorns and millet. There were lovely crusty loaves too, and loaves baked on a hearth. Bakers made a bread mixed with cheese, but the favourite of the rich was always white bread made from wheat. In ancient Greece, keen rivalry existed between cities as to which produced the best bread. Athens claimed the laurel wreath, and the name of its greatest baker, Thearion, has been handed down through the ages in the writings of various authors. During the friendly rivalry between the towns, Lynceus sings the praises of Rhodian rolls.

The last time I was in Pompeii, I discovered the ruins of Pompeii and other buried cities to reveal the kind of bakeries existing in those historic times. There were public bakeries where the poorer people brought their bread to be baked, or from which they could buy ready-baked bread. The ancient Greeks and Romans knew bread for a staple food even in those times people argued whether white or brown bread was best.

A Bakers' Guild was formed in Rome round about the year 168 B.C. From then on the industry began as a separate profession. The Guild or College, called Collegium Pistorum,* did not allow the bakers or their children to withdraw from it and take up other trades. The bakers in Rome at this period enjoyed special privileges: they were the only craftsmen who were freemen of the city, all other trades being conducted by slaves.

The members of the Guild were forbidden to mix with 'comedians and gladiators' and from attending performances at the amphitheatre, so that they might not be contaminated by the vices of the ordinary people.  The Guild of Master Bakers is still alive today.
Here is their coat of arms. 

In 125 A.D. Roman bakeries were producing bread in a number of varieties, and the Romans distribute free bread to the poor in times of need.

interesting names. There was oyster bread (to be eaten with oysters); ‘artolaganus’ or cakebread; ‘speusticus’ or ‘hurry bread’. There was oven bread, tin bread, Parthian bread. There were rich breads made with milk, eggs and butter, but these of course, were only for the wealthy and privileged people. The Egyptian grammarian and philosopher Athenaeus, who lived in the third century A.D., has handed down to us considerable knowledge about bread and baking in those days.

Plato (c. 400 B.C.) writings pictured the ideal state where men lived to a healthy old age on whole meal bread ground from a local wheat. Socrates, however, suggested that this proposal meant the whole population would be living on pig-food. In those days, there were certain “cheap” bakers who kneaded the meal with sea-water to save the price of salt. Pliny did not approve of this.

Like most Americans today, the Greeks and Romans liked their bread white.  Most of my travels in Europe show a great variety of some of the most wonderful breads including the dark breads.  German rye bread and pumpernickel was a staple in my childhood home.  It seemed that every neighborhood we lived in had a good German bakery in it.

During early English historical times, the population was constantly bombarded with recurring periods of famine, due to not enough, or too much rain, or frosts, and other natural causes.

The nobles, knowing that rebellion often followed famine, did their utmost to keep the price of bread from rising too high. Laws regulating its price were passed during the reign of King John (1202). Not only did the law fix the price, but it strictly allocated that price between cost of material and an allowance for necessary charges to the baker.

In those days, just as today, there were rascals in the trade.  Some bakers inserted pennies in the loaves to have them weigh more and then removed the pennies later. Some cut slices of their staled bread and mixed it in with their fresh dough.  These bakers were very often caught and put into the public stocks or pillories.

Here the bakers are putting the bread into the oven using a bread “peel”.

Today, anyone wanting to become a baker can easily do so by going to a baking school or just opening up a shop.  This was not so in Medieval times.  If a young man wanted to become a baker, he had to serve an apprenticeship of seven years. The law supported the bakers in preserving their craft to themselves, and there were statutes published with various penalties for infringement. In those days there were certain dishonest persons in the trade.

Once the invention of the steam-engine came into being it changed the industries and the lives of the people in Britain, except, strangely enough, the milling of flour. One miller in London who used a steam-engine to drive his machinery, found the mill destroyed by fire one day; this apparently discouraged him from attempting to use the new steam machinery again.

to drive the mill machinery.  Today we find a resurgence of stone ground or milled flour, especially in gourmet products.

soon became accepted all over Europe and in Britain.

They were driven by steam-engines, which had by now much improved, and the new method proved a great success. So popular did they become, that within about thirty years from their introduction into Britain in 1880, more than three-quarters of the windmills and watermills which had served so faithfully (if sometimes erratically) for hundreds of years, were demolished, or left to rot. Meanwhile, the development of the North American prairies, ideally suited to grow wheat, provided ample grain for the fast-growing population of Great Britain at the time of the Industrial Revolution (which in turn reduced the farm acreage here). This, together with the invention of the roller-milling system, meant that for the first time in history, whiter flour (and therefore bread) could be produced at a price which brought it within the reach of everyone - not just the rich.

According to botanists, wheat, oats, barley and other grains belong to the order of Grasses; nobody has yet found the wild form of grass from which wheat, as we know it, has developed. Like most of the wild grasses, cereal blossoms bear both male and female elements. The young plants are provided with a store of food to ensure their support during the period of germination, and it is in this store of reserve substance that man finds an abundant supply of food.

By comparison, UK wheat is harvested in August, having been planted the previous September. Different varieties again are required to cope with the dry sun-baked lands of northern India. The forecast for total world wheat production in 1990 is 570 million tons with Western Europe contributing about 90 million tons. This world crop would cover an area nine times the size of the UK, with each hectare cultivated producing an average of 2.3 tons. In the UK, the average yield is over six tons per hectare, indicating the efficiency of British farmers.

By 1890, the Upper Midwest was firmly integrated into the national economy. A fully-developed railroad system moved the region's products east through Chicago to New York. Wheat cultivation shifted to the north and west as yields within the region diminished and new lands elsewhere demonstrated their superiority. A spectacular example of the new wheat lands was the Red River valley in far northwestern Minnesota and North Dakota. A kind of corporate farming took advantage of the newly available machinery for harvesting wheat and of vast spaces of flat and virgin (and cheap) land. The bonanza wheat farms, by traditional measure, were gargantuan in size, taking in thousands of acres. The small-scale wheat farms of the pioneer period were hopelessly outclassed.

In 1850 the United States has 2,017 bakeries, according to Census figures; they employ 6,727 workers.

In 1928 Inventor Otto Frederick Rohwedder perfects the commercial bread slicer after 15 years of work. It is used for the first time in a commercial bakery in Chillicothe, MO. Consumers are suspicious of sliced bread at first.

In 1943 during an era of wartime rationing, U.S. Agriculture Secretary Claude Wickard banned the sale of sliced bread in an effort to hold down prices.

During the 1960’s white bread reached its peak

In 1963 9 billion pounds of white bread was consumed by Americans

In 1990 U.S. Dietary Guidelines recommended six to 11 servings of bread and grain foods per day for a healthful life.  That seems like a lot today and I would think 3 slices of good bread or something with grains would keep you fairly healthy and not leaning towards the obese side!

In 1998 Folic acid—a key nutrient in the prevention of serious birth defects—was added to all enriched grain foods, including bread.

Whether you like the pleasure of kneading your dough by hand or using the convenience of a bread machine, you will enjoy these wonderful bread recipes of the world.

Authentic French Croissants                        

Ingredients

• 1 1/4 teaspoons active dry yeast  

• 3 tablespoons warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)

• 1 teaspoon white sugar

• 1 3/4 cups all-purpose flour

• 2 teaspoons white sugar

• 1 1/2 teaspoons salt

• 2/3 cup warm milk

• 2 tablespoons vegetable oil

• 2/3 cup unsalted butter, chilled

• 1 egg

• 1 tablespoon water

Directions

Measure flour into a mixing bowl. Dissolve 2 teaspoons sugar and salt in warm milk. Blend into flour along with yeast and oil. Mix well; knead until smooth. Cover, and let rise until over triple in volume. Deflate gently, and let rise again until doubled. Deflate and chill 20 minutes.

Massage butter until pliable, but not soft and oily. Pat dough into a 14 x 8 inch rectangle. Smear butter over top two thirds, leaving ¼ inch margin all around. Fold unbuttered third over middle third, and buttered top third down over that. Turn 90 degrees, so that folds are to left and right. Roll out to a 14 x 6 inch rectangle. Fold in three again. Sprinkle lightly with flour, and put dough in a plastic bag. Refrigerate 2 hours. Unwrap, sprinkle with flour, and deflate gently. Roll to a 14 x 6 inch rectangle, and fold again. Turn 90 degrees, and repeat. Wrap, and chill 2 hours.

To shape, roll dough out to a 20 x 5 inch rectangle. Cut in half crosswise, and chill half while shaping the other half. Roll out to a 15 x 5 inch rectangle. Cut into three 5 x 5 inch squares. Cut each square in half diagonally. Roll each triangle lightly to elongate the point, and make it 7 inches long. Grab the other 2 points, and stretch them out slightly as you roll it up. Place on a baking sheet, curving slightly. Let shaped croissants rise until puffy and light. In a small bowl, beat together egg and 1 tablespoon water. Glaze croissants with egg wash.

Bake in a preheated 475 degrees F (245 degrees C) oven for 12 to 15 minutes.

Crusty French bread  

Ingredients

• 6 cups all-purpose flour

• 2 1/2 (.25 ounce) packages active dry yeast

• 1 1/2 teaspoons salt

• 2 cups warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)

• 1 tablespoon cornmeal

• 1 egg white

• 1 tablespoon water

Directions

In a large bowl, combine 2 cups flour, yeast and salt. Stir in 2 cups warm water, and beat until well blended using a stand mixer with a dough hook attachment. Using a wooden spoon, stir in as much of the remaining flour as you can.

On a lightly floured surface, knead in enough flour to make a stiff dough that is smooth and elastic. Knead for about 8 to 10 minutes total. Shape into a ball. Place dough in a greased bowl, and turn once. Cover, and let rise in a warm place until doubled.

Grease a large baking sheet. Sprinkle with cornmeal. Place loaves, seam side down, on the prepared baking sheet. Lightly beat the egg white with 1 tablespoon of water, and brush on. Cover with a damp cloth. Let rise until nearly doubled, 35 to 40 minutes.

Italian Bread                         

"Wonderful Italian bread made in a bread machine then baked in the oven."  Original recipe yield: 2 - 1 pound loaves.

Ingredients

• 4 cups unbleached all-purpose flour

• 1 tablespoon light brown sugar

• 1 1/3 cups warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)

• 1 1/2 teaspoons salt

• 1 1/2 teaspoons olive oil

• 1 (.25 ounce) package active dry yeast

•  1 egg

• 1 tablespoon water

• 2 tablespoons cornmeal

Directions

Place flour, brown sugar, warm water, salt, olive oil and yeast in the pan of the bread machine in the order recommended by the manufacturer. Select dough cycle; press Start.

Deflate the dough and turn it out onto a lightly floured surface. Form dough into two loaves. Place the loaves seam side down on a cutting board generously sprinkled with cornmeal. Cover the loaves with a damp cloth and let rise, until doubled in volume about 40 minutes. Meanwhile, preheat oven to 375 degrees F (190 degrees C).

In a small bowl, beat together egg and 1 tablespoon water. Brush the risen loaves with egg mixture. Make a single long, quick cut down the center of the loaves with a sharp knife. Gently shake the cutting board to make sure that the loaves are not sticking. If they stick, use a spatula or pastry knife to loosen. Slide the loaves onto a baking sheet with one quick but careful motion.

Bake in preheated oven for 30 to 35 minutes, or until loaves sound hollow when tapped on the bottom.

Norwegian  Landbroed

• 50 grams fresh yeast
• 0.5 tbsp. oil
• 1.5 tsp. salt
• 375 grams rye flour (coarsely ground)
• 125 grams wheat bran or -germ
• 1.5 kilos all-purpose flour (you need more!)

Dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm water. Mix the dry ingredients in a big bowl. Add oil and the yeast mix. Knead the dough well. You will probably have to add (quite a bit) more wheat to get the right consistency. Cover it and leave it to rise to twice its original size in a warm place. Knead the dough, and shape four round loaves.

Stir together the flours, oats, baking soda and sugar in a large bowl. Using fingertips, quickly rub in the butter. Make a well in the center and gradually stir in the buttermilk with a wooden spoon until the dough is soft, but manageable.

Turn the dough onto a lightly floured board and knead it for about 1 minute. Shape the dough into a ball and put it in the center of the prepared baking sheet. With the palm of your hand, flatten the dough into a circle that is 1H inches thick. Using a sharp knife dipped in flour, make a cross (do not cut too deeply) through the center of the bread so that it will easy break into quarters when it is baked. Bake for about 35 minutes in preheated oven, or until browned and cooked through. Makes 1 loaf.

The last time I was in Ireland, we enjoyed wonderful bread with our meals.  The Irish are the friendliest people on this planet.  Should you ask a simple question, be prepared to spend some time getting the answer.

Preheat oven to 425°F.

Sift the flour, salt, baking soda and cream of tartar into a large bowl. Add the butter, and rub into the flour (your best tools for this job are your thumbs and forefingers) until the butter lumps have disappeared.

Add the buttermilk to the dry ingredients, stirring just until dry ingredients are moistened. Turn out onto a floured surface, and knead 8 or 10 times. The dough will be soft. (Sprinkle just a little additional flour, if necessary, to aid in handling the dough.)

Form the dough into a ball and place on a floured baking sheet. With a sharp knife, cut a deep cross into the top of the loaf. Dust top of loaf lightly with flour.

Bake at 425°F for 15 minutes, then reduce heat to 375°F and bake an additional 25 minutes. Makes one large loaf approximately 9 inches in diameter.

Russian Black Bread                                    

Ingredients:

• 3 to 4 cups Bread Flour

• 2 cups whole bran cereal (shredded type)

• 2 pkgs. active dry yeast

• 1 tablespoon sugar

• 1 tablespoon instant coffee

• 1 tablespoon salt

• 2 teaspoons onion powder

• 1 teaspoon crushed fennel seed, if desired

• 2 1/2 cups water

• 1/2 cup molasses

• 1/4 cup cooking oil

• 1 envelope pre-melted OR 1 square unsweetened chocolate

• 3 cups Medium Rye Flour

Directions:

Amish Bread                                     

• 2 3/4 cups bread flour

• 1/4 cup canola oil

• 1 teaspoon active dry yeast

• 1/4 cup white sugar

• 1/2 teaspoon salt

• 18 tablespoons warm water

Directions

Place ingredients in the pan of the bread machine in the order recommended by the manufacturer. Select White Bread cycle; press Start.

When the dough has raised once and second cycle of kneading begins, turn machine off. Reset by pressing Start once again. This gives the dough two full raising cycles before the final raising cycle prior to baking.  Yield 1- 1 ½ pound loaf.

Whenever we go to New Orleans we stop at the Café Du Monde to get their fabulous beignets.  When we had the B&B in Tennessee, we always served Beignets with the breakfasts.

(Cajun or Creole type bread made famous in New Orleans)

• 2 1/4 teaspoons active dry yeast                                  

• 1 1/2 cups warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)

• 1/2 cup white sugar

• 1 teaspoon salt

• 2 eggs

• 1 cup evaporated milk

• 7 cups all-purpose flour

• 1/4 cup shortening

• 1 quart vegetable oil for frying

• 1/4 cup confectioners' sugar

Directions

In a large bowl, dissolve yeast in warm water. Add sugar, salt, eggs, evaporated milk, and blend well. Mix in 4 cups of the flour and beat until smooth. Add the shortening, and then the remaining 3 cups of flour. Cover and chill for up to 24 hours.

Roll out dough 1/8 inch thick. Cut into 2 ½ inch squares. Fry in 360 degree F (180 degrees C) hot oil. If beignets do not pop up, oil is not hot enough. Drain onto paper towels.

Shake confectioners’ sugar on hot beignets. Serve warm.

Canadian Bread

Winnipeg Rye Bread                                    

• 1/4 cup cracked rye

• 1/4 cup water

• 3/4 cup milk

• 1 cup water

• 1 teaspoon salt

• 1/4 cup packed brown sugar

• 1 egg

• 3 tablespoons butter

• 4 1/3 cups bread flour

• 4 teaspoons gluten

• 1 3/4 teaspoons active dry yeast

• 1 tablespoon milk

Directions

Soak the cracked rye flour in ¼ cup of water until most of the water has been absorbed.

Place ingredients into the bread machine in the order suggested by the manufacturer. Add the soaked rye with the other flour. Set bread machine for the DOUGH cycle, and press START.

When the machine indicates the end of the cycle, remove the dough, punch down, and let rest for 10 minutes. Divide the dough into halves, press out any air bubbles, and form into round or long loaves. Place them onto a baking sheet, and allow the loaves to rise in a warm place until they have doubled in size, about 35 minutes.

Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F (175 degrees C). Brush the tops of the loaves with remaining milk. Bake for about 35 to 40 minutes, or until the loaf makes a hollow sound when tapped on the bottom.

Hawaiian bread                                 

Ingredients

• 1/2 cup mashed banana

• 1/2 cup crushed pineapple, with juice

• 1 egg

• 1/4 cup milk

• 1/4 cup margarine, softened

• 1 teaspoon coconut extract

• 1/2 teaspoon salt

• 1/3 cup white sugar

• 1/2 cup instant potato flakes

• 3 cups bread flour

• 1 1/2 teaspoons active dry yeast

Directions

Place ingredients in the pan of the bread machine in the order recommended by the manufacturer. Select Light setting; press Start.

Native American Fry bread                          

Ingredients

• 4 cups all-purpose flour

• 1/2 teaspoon salt

• 1 tablespoon baking powder

• 1 1/2 cups warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)

• 4 cups shortening for frying

Directions

Combine flour, salt, and baking powder. Stir in 1 ½ cups lukewarm water. Knead until soft but not sticky. Shape dough into balls about 3 inches in diameter. Flatten into patties ½ inch thick, and make a small hole in the center of each patty.

Fry one at a time in 1 inch of hot shortening, turning to brown on both sides. Drain on paper towels.

Boston Brown Bread                        

Ingredients

• 1 cup all-purpose flour

• 2 cups whole wheat flour

• 1 teaspoon baking soda

• 1/4 teaspoon salt

• 1 cup molasses

• 1 1/2 cups buttermilk

• 2/3 cup raisins

Directions

Preheat oven to 375 degrees F ( 190 degrees C). Grease a 9x5 inch loaf pan.

In a large bowl, stir together all-purpose flour, whole wheat flour, baking soda, and salt. Mix in molasses and buttermilk. Stir in raisins or currants. Transfer batter into prepared loaf pan.

Bake for 1 hour, or until a tester inserted into the center of the loaf comes out clean.

Note: If you want the tube type looking bread.  Wash out a large smooth sided vegetable or fruit tin, remove label, dry can and either grease well with shortening or baker’s spray.  Once the baking is complete and the tin has cooled down, open the other end and using the end, push the baked bread through the tin.

Ingredients:

• 4 teaspoons active dry yeast

• 1/2 teaspoon sugar

• 1/2 cup warm water

• 1/2 cup unbleached all-purpose flour

• 3 1/2 cups bread flour

• 1 teaspoon salt

• 3 tablespoons olive oil

• 1 cup plus 1 tablespoon lukewarm water

• 2 eggs, lightly beaten

• Nigella seeds and/or sesame seeds

Directions:

Dissolve the yeast and sugar in warm water and let stand in a warm place for 10 minutes, until frothy. Stir in the flour, cover with plastic wrap, and let rise 30 minutes.
To finish the dough, put the flour in a large bowl, made a well in the center, and put in the sponge, salt, olive oil, and lukewarm water. Gradually work in the flour to make a soft and sticky dough. Knead the dough on a floured surface for 15 minutes. The dough will be very sticky at first, but as you knead, it will gradually cease to stick to your hands. You should have a damp and very springy dough that will offer no resistance to kneading. Put the dough in a buttered bowl, cover with plastic wrap, and let rise 1 hour, until well swollen. You can refrigerate the dough at this point until you are ready to use it.

Makes two large loaves.

Swedish Rye Bread                           

Ingredients:

• 1 cup water

• 1 cup mashed potatoes

• 3 cups hot potato water

• 1 tablespoon salt

• 1 cup dark corn syrup

• 2 cakes compressed yeast

• 7 cups sifted rye flour

• 1 cup whole wheat flour

• 1 cup soy flour

Directions:

Dissolve the yeast cakes in the mixture of salt, water, mashed potato, and lukewarm potato water. Add some of the flour. Add the molasses and syrup. Mix in the flour, adding enough white flour to make a stiff dough, kneading it well. Put it in a warm place to rise, then knead down again. Let rise, then form into loaves. Will make 7 loaves.

Bake at 350 degrees F. for 1 hour.

Spanish Tortillas                                                       

Ingredients:

• 3 large eggs

• 1 small onion, sliced

• 3 medium potatoes, peeled and thinly sliced

• 1/3 cup olive oil

• 1/2 tsp. salt

Directions:

 3. When almost all of the mixture is set, place a plate over skillet; hold firmly with the palm of your hand, and turn skillet upside down. Slide tortilla from the plate back into skillet, and cook the other side for several minutes. Run the spatula around the edge until golden brown. Place a clean plate over the tortilla and turn upside down. For beginners this size is easiest. It may take a few tries to perfect. Once you are comfortable with this version, add red or green peppers, peas, seafood or mushrooms in place of, or in addition to, potatoes or onions. You can also prepare a much larger one--experiment with ingredient amounts.

Scottish Bannock Bread                  

Ingredients:

• 2 cups flour

• 1/2 teaspoon salt

• 4 teaspoons baking powder

• 1/2 cup Crisco (You could use bear grease or oolichan grease)

• 1/2 cup water to make a thick dough

• Additional shortening to grease the pan

Directions:

Mix the dry ingredients together well. Cut in the shortening using a pastry blender. Mix in the water and knead until the dough is very smooth, about 15 minutes. You can do this in much less time with a powerful electric mixer such as a KitchenAid. Grease a black frying pan, including the sides, and press the dough into the pan. Bake on top of the stove over low heat. Watch carefully so that the bread does not brown or burn before the center is cooked. When the bread is free from the pan, turn the loaf over and continue to cook. The total cooking time will be about 10 minutes on each side.

Portuguese Peasant Bread                       

Ingredients:

• 2 tablespoons sugar
• 2 packages active dry yeast
• 1 package (8oz.) barley cereal (about 4 1/2 cups)*, uncooked
• 2 1/2 cups stone-ground cornmeal, preferably white
• 4 teaspoons salt
• about 4 3/4 cups all-purpose flour

*Barley cereal can be found in the baby-food section of supermarkets.

Directions:

1.      In small bowl, stir sugar and yeast into 1/2 cup warm water (105-115 degrees F.); let stand until yeast mixture foams, about 5 minutes.
2. In large bowl, combine barley cereal, cornmeal, salt, and 4 cups flour. With wooden spoon, stir in yeast mixture and 2 1/2 cups warm water (105-115 degrees F.) unitl combined. With floured hands, shape dough into a ball in bowl.
3. Cover bowl with plastic wrap and let rise in warm place (80-85 degrees F.) until doubled, about 1 hour.
4. Punch down dough and turn onto well-floured surface. Knead dough until smooth, about 5 minutes, working in more flour (about 3/4 cup) as necessary while kneading.
5. Grease large cookie sheet. Cut dough in half and shape each half into a 6-inch round. Coat each round with flour, place on cookie sheet. Cover loaves with towel and let rise in warm place until doubled, about 1 hour.
6. Preheat oven to 400 degrees F. Bake loaves until golden brown, a total of about 35 minutes,using spray bottle to spritz loaves with water after first 5 minutes of baking, and again 10 minutes later. Cool on wire racks. Makes 2 loaves, 12 servings per loaf.

Prep: 20 minutes plus rising and cooling
Bake: 35 minutes

Polish Babka bread                           

Ingredients:

• 1 package dry yeast

• 1/4 cup lukewarm water

• 1/4 cup warm milk

• 1/4 cup sugar, divided

• 1/4 cup butter or margarine, softened

• 3 eggs

• 2 1/2 cup flour

• 1/4 teaspoon salt

• 1/2 cup candied fruits, chopped

• 1/2 cup raisins

Glaze:

• 1 cup powdered sugar

• 3 tablespoons orange juice

• 1 tablespoon milk

Directions:

Cover and let rise until doubled. Stir in fruits and raisins. Turn out onto a floured surface and knead 1 - 2 minutes. Turn into prepared pan. Cover and let rise about 45 minutes or until doubled. Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Bake 30 - 40 minutes until well browned. Turn out of the pan immediately and let cool on a wire rack. Combine glaze ingredients and drizzle over the top.

1 loaf.

Being born in Brooklyn, New York, meant practically being raised up on bagels. I love the salted ones.  

Ingredients:

• 1 potato, peeled and quartered

• 2 cups boiling water

• 1 package active dry yeast                                           

• 4 cups all-purpose flour

• 1/2 tablespoon salt

• 1+1/2 tablespoons sugar

• 1/4 cup vegetable oil

• 2 large eggs

• Cornmeal to dust cookie sheet

• 2 quarts water

• 1 egg white (optional)

Directions:

Put potato into boiling water and boil for 15 minutes. Discard potato and let water cool to about 110 degrees F.

Transfer 1/3 cup of the potato water to a small bowl. Sprinkle yeast over top of water and stir to combine. Set aside for 3 minutes.

Sift flour, salt, and 1/2 tablespoon of the sugar together into a large bowl. Add yeast mixture. Stir in another 2/3 cup of the potato water and the oil. Add eggs one at a time and stir briskly until a dough ball is formed.

Turn dough out onto a floured surface and knead for about ten minutes until dough ball is firm, adding a little extra flour if needed. Place in a greased bowl, turning the dough so all sides are greased. Cover the bowl with a clean towel and set aside in a warm place for about 1 hour until dough has risen to double its original size. Punch the risen dough down to flatten and remove from bowl.

Cut dough into 18 equal pieces and shape each piece into a 6- to 7-inch-long, 3/4-inch-thick rope. Bring the ends of one rope together and pinch closed. (A little water on the ends will help secure them.) Repeat until 18 rings are formed. Cover all rings with the towel and let rise for 20 minutes.

Japanese Bread

Ezekiel Bread

Ingredients:

• 2 cups hard wheat
• 1 cups spelt or rye
• 1 cup barley
• 1 cup millet
• 1 cup green lentils
• 2 tablespoons great Northern beans
• 2 tablespoons red kidney beans
• 2 tablespoons pinto beans
• 4 cups warm water (110 degrees F)
• 1 cup honey
• 1cup olive oil
• 2 tablespoons salt

Directions:

This is the bread that Ezekiel lived off of while he was fasting for two years. It is supposed to be nutritionally complete.

1. Measure the water, honey, olive oil, and yeast into a large bowl. Let sit for 3 to 5 minutes.

2. Stir all of the grains and beans together until well mixed. Grind in a flour mill. Add fresh milled flour and salt to the yeast mixture; stir until well mixed, about 10 minutes. The dough will be like that of a batter bread. Pour dough into two greased 9 x 5 inch loaf pans.

3. Let rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until dough has reached the top of the pan.

4. Bake at 350 degrees F (175 degrees C) for 45 to 50 minutes, or until loaves are golden brown. Makes 2 loaves

Directions:

1. Preheat oven to 425 degrees F. With cooking spray, grease steel baking sheet; sprinkle with cornmeal. Unroll pizza dough; following directions for thin crust, spread to edges of prepared baking sheet.

2. In nonstick skillet, heat oil over medium heat. Saute onion 6 to 8 minutes or until tender; stir in olives and rosemary. spread over dough. sprinkle with salt and pepper. Bake 10 to 12 minutes or until golden. with pizza cutter or kitchen shears, cut focaccia into assorted sizes.

Makes 6 servings.

Our kids loved it when I made calzones for them. They called them, “Half Moons” and before we became health conscious we used to deep fry them. Now we bake them.

Light Wheat Pizza or Calzone dough                                   

Ingredients:   

• 1 1/2 cups lukewarm water

• 1 1/4 oz. package (about 1 tablespoon) active dry yeast

• 3 1/4 cups (approximately) unbleached flour

• 1/2 cup whole wheat flour

• 1/3 cup yellow cornmeal, preferably stoneground

• 1 1/2 teaspoons salt

• 2 tablespoons good-quality olive oil

Directions:

Directions:

In large mixer bowl combine 2 cups of the flour, the yeast, and the salt. Add 2 cups warm water. Beat at low speed of electric mixer for 1/2 minute, scraping bowl constantly. Beat 3 minutes at high speed. Stir in as much of the reamining flour as you can mix in with a spoon. Turn out onto lightly floured surface. Knead in enough of the remaining flour to make a stiff dough that is smooth and elastic (8 to 10 minutes total).(You can use your KitchenAid for this). Shape into a ball. Place in lightly greased bowl, turning once to grease surface. Cover; let rise in warm place until double (1 to 1 1/2 hours). Punch down; turn out onto lightly floured surface. Divide in half.

Cover; let rest 10 minutes. Roll each half into a 15 x 12-inch rectangle. Roll up tightly from long side; moisten and seal well. Taper ends. Place, seam side down, on greased baking sheet sprinkled with cornmeal. If desired, brush with mixture of egg white and 1 tablespoon water. Cover; let rise till nearly double (about 45 minutes). Make 5 or 6 diagonal cuts about 1/4 inch deep across tops of loaves. Bake in 375 degree F. oven for 40 to 45 minutes. If desired, brush again with egg white mixture after 20 minutes of baking. Cool. Makes 2 loaves.

Even though you can get this at any time, it always was around Christmas that we enjoyed this.

Italian Pannetone Bread                               

Ingredients:

• 3/4 cup milk, scalded
• 1 stick butter (8 Tblsp )
• 1 tsp. orange rind, grated
• 1 tsp. lemon rind, grated
• 1 tsp. vanilla
• 1 tsp. brandy extract
• 1 tsp. salt
• 3 eggs, slightly beaten
• 3 cups bread flour
• 6 Tblsp sugar
• 3/4 Tbsp. dry yeast
  

Directions:

Add ingredients to bread machine as given. In separate bowl, mix 3 T. bread flour with 2 oz. slivered almonds, chopped fine, and 1/2 cup white raisins. Mix well so raisins get coated (separate with fingers). Let bread bake 20 minutes and add raisin-nut mixture to bread. (Or add at proper time of your machine.)

Indian and Pakistani Bread                          

Naan ( a type of Indian bread)

Ingredients:

• 450g strong white flour 

• 2 teaspoons sesame seeds

• 1 tablespoon baking powder

• 1/2 teaspoon onion seed

• 1 tablespoon granulated sugar

• lukewarm water

• 2 table spoon yoghurt

• a little ghee, (butter), melted

• 1 teaspoon aromatic salt

Directions:

11 Return to grill and cook until sizzling. Remove.

12  Repeat stages 9-11 with the other naan. Serve it once.

Brotchen (German Hard Rolls)        

Ingredients:

• 1 pkg. yeast

• 1 1/4 c. lukewarm water

• 2 tsp. sugar

• 1/2 tsp. salt

• 2 tbsp. shortening

• 1 egg white, stiffly beaten

• 4 c. flour

Directions:

Dissolve yeast in 1/4 cup warm water. In mixing bowl combine yeast, 1 cup water, salt and shortening. Fold in stiffly beaten egg white.

Add enough flour to make a soft dough. Let dough rise twice
until doubled, punch down and let rise again. Punch down and divide in 10-12 pieces. Form into slightly flattened balls and place on greased baking sheet.

Preheat oven to 450 degrees and bake 20 minutes. To ensure a hard crust, place pan with boiling water in bottom of oven during baking. Serve warm with jam, or cold.

Filipino  Bread                                               

Ingredients: 

FIRST BEATING:

• 2tsps. yeast

• half tsps sugar

• three fourths cup lukewarm water

• 1 cup bread flour

• Half cup lukewarm evaporated milk

Directions:

SECOND BEATING:

• 5 egg yolks (plus 1 egg white), beaten
• 2 cups bread flour
• one fourth cup sugar
  
  Mix the beaten yolks, sugar and flour. Beat well. Add to the above mixture. Knead and shape into a ball. Cover and let rise again in a pan of warm water until double in bulk (30-40minutes).

THIRD BEATING:

• 5 egg yolks (plus 1 egg white) beaten
• three fourths cup creamed butter
• 2 cups bread flour
• half cup sugar
• 2 cups grated edam or gouda cheese
  
  When above dough is double in volume, add beaten egg yolks and white sugar, flour and creamed butter. Mix. Place in a greased board. Knead until satiny and smooth (about 10 minutes). Shape into smooth ball. Place ball of dough into greased bowl. Cover and let rise double in size (40-60 minutes). Punch down. Divide the dough into seperate pieces. Roll each piece thinly on a greased board. Spread butter and sprinkle grated cheese on rolled out dough. Starting from one end twist to form a cone. Grease molds and put in the twisted dough. Cover and let rise in a pan of warm water until dough has doubled (about 40-60 minutes. Remove from baking molds and let cool for 5 minutes. Top with creamed butter, sugar and grated cheese (if preferred sprinkle with more sugar).
  

Ethiopian Injera Bread                     

Ingredients:

• 3 cups of warm water

• 2 ½ cups of self rising flour

• 3 tbsp Soda water

Directions:

Danish Rugbrod                                            

Ingredients:                                       

• 3 1/2 oz. (100g) yeas

• 1 pint (5 dl) buttermilk

• 3-4 tablespoons (1 dl) water

• About 1 3/4 lb. (850 g) rye flour

• 1 teaspoon salt

Directions:

All the ingredients should be at room temperature before baking.

When risen, knead lightly, transfer to a greased form and set aside for 1 hour to rise again, covering with a damp cloth. Brush with water and bake at 400 degrees (200 C) for about 1 1/4 hours, brushing now and again with water during the baking.

British Crumpets                                           

Ingredients:

• 1 cup milk

• 4 T unsalted butter

• 1/2 cup water

• 2 pkg.(1/4 oz. each)active dry yeast

• 2 t sugar

• 3 1/3 cups flour

• 1 1/2 t salt

• 1 t baking soda dissolved in 6 T warm water

• Butter and marmalade, if desired

Directions:

In small saucepan, scald milk with butter. Pour mixture into large bowl and add water; cool to lukewarm. Add yeast and sugar; stir until dissolved. Let mixture stand about 15 to 20 minutes, until foamy. With wooden spoon, stir in flour and salt, scraping sides of bowl, until a thick dough is formed. Cover loosely and let stand in warm place until doubled in bulk, about one hour. Stir in baking soda mixture until well combined. Grease 3-inch muffin rings (or use 7oz. tins, such as tuna tins, with tops and bottoms removed) and arrange them in greased heavy skillet. Heat skillet and rings over moderate heat. Spoon 1/4 cup of the batter into each ring, spreading batter out to the edges of ring with fingers or spatula. Cook crumpets about two minutes, until golden brown on one side. Release rings with tip of knife and lift off crumpets. Turn crumpets and cook on other side about three minutes, until golden brown. Continue to make crumpets in same manner with remaining batter. Serve warm at once, or if desired, split, toast and serve with butter and marmalade. Makes about 18 crumpets.

When I lived in Australia, one of the best things I could get was good Australian Sourdough Bread. Here is a good starter recipe.

Australian Sourdough starter

Ingredients:

• 250g/ 8oz flour

• 120g/ 4oz sugar

• 480ml/ 18fl.oz milk

Directions:

Combine all ingredients, mixing until smooth. in a non-metal container. Glass or earthenware is best but plastic will do.

Cover and leave in a warm place for 3-4 days such as beside the stove, or on top of the fridge near heat from motor. Temperature and humidity do affect the starter and so test it after 2 days for "life". You will have no doubts if it is alive. The mixture will be bubbly and have a strong, sour smell.

Armenian Thin Bread (Lavash)                   

Ingredients:

• 1 1/3 cups tepid water (barely warm, about 105 degrees)

• 1/4 cup olive oil

• 3 tablespoons sugar

• 1 pkg. quick-rising yeast

• 2 teaspoons salt

• 4 cups all-purpose flour

• 1/2 cup milk for topping

• Sesame seeds for topping

Directions:

Place the tepid water in your electric mixing bowl and add the olive oil, sugar, and yeast. Using the batter blade let the electric mixer blend these very well. It will take about 5 minutes on low speed. Stir in the salt. Gradually add 2 cups of the flour and beat on low speed until a thick and smooth batter forms. Change the blade to a bread dough hook and knead in the additional 2 cups flour. If you do not have a heavy mixer such as a KitchenAid, incorporate the flour with a wooden spoon and finish the kneading by hand. Kneading should take about 10 minutes in the machine, 20 minutes by hand. Place the dough on a plastic countertop and cover with a large stainless-steel bowl. Allow the dough to rise until double in bulk, about 1 1/2 hours. Punch the dough down and divide into 8 pieces. Let stand, covered, 15 minutes. Roll out each piece of dough into a 12-inch diameter circle. Working with 2 pieces of dough at a time, arrange breads on ungreased baking sheets. Brush with milk and sprinkle sesame seeds over tops. Prick with a fork many times, all over. Bake on the lowest racks in the oven, at 375 degrees, for 8 to 10 minutes, or until light brown. Rotate the pans in the oven from top to bottom, to insure even browning. Serve dry or wet. (To wet, hold the cracker under running water until lightly moistened all over, and then wrap in a moist towel for 10 to 15 minutes.) If the cracker is too dry to roll, it will crack. Sprinkle with a little more water and let stand a few minutes. If it is too wet, cover with a dry towel and let it stand.

Makes 8 Cracker Breads.

Is there anything more American than Parker House Rolls?

American Parker House Rolls                     

Ingredients:

• 2 cups lukewarm water

• 6 tablespoons sugar

• 3 tablespoons shortening

• 2 teaspoons salt

• 2 packages yeast dry

• 6 cups of flour

• 1 egg

Directions:

Mix water and yeast until dissolved. Add mixture to the rest of ingredients. Knead well, and brush melted butter over top of dough. Let dough set in bowl, cover with a towel, and let rise. When dough has risen, punch dough down and roll out dough. Brush with butter and cut into triangles. Roll from larger end to the point, bend slightly to form Parker house shape. Let rise in greased pan. Bake at 325 F. until brown about twenty minutes and brush slightly with butter.

African Coconut Bread                                 

Ingredients:

• 4 c. flour
• 1/4 lb. shortening
• 3/4 c. milk and coconut water (or coconut milk)
• 6 oz. sugar
• 1 egg
• 2 c. grated coconut
• 1 tsp. vanilla essence
• 2 tsp. baking powder
• 6 oz. raisins (optional)
• 1/2 tsp. salt

Directions:

Sift dry ingredients. Add sugar, then beaten egg with milk, melted shortening and essence. Stir in grated coconut and raisins (floured) if used. Blend ingredients well. Knead slightly on floured board. Shape into loaves and put in greased loaf pan, filling only two thirds of each pan. Dust with fine sugar. Bake in moderate oven. Makes 2 loaves. For heavier coconut bread, use only 1 teaspoon baking powder and 1/2 cup milk. Knead well on board, using extra flour until dough is very firm. Shape into loaves. Score the tops and brush with sugar and water.

How to care for your bread.

or cloth bread bag.  Bread freezes well and will keep several weeks if tightly wrapped in a freezer-quality plastic bag. 

Defrost your bread...
To defrost frozen bread, remove from the freezer, and leaving in freezer bag let stand at room temperature for three to four hours. Or, wrap frozen loaf in aluminum foil and warm in oven preheated to 165 degrees C (325 degrees F) for 20-30 minutes.

Then, crisp the crust
Place thawed, unwrapped bread in a 200 degree C (400 degree F) oven for five minutes before serving. Let stand for a few minutes before cutting. This method also restores the bread's crust on humid days. 

Humidity alert
During the summer months humidity can cause bread to lose its crispness. Please place your bread in a 200 degree C (400 degree F) oven for 5 to 8 minutes. Remove from the oven and let it rest for 5 to 10 minutes before cutting.

We have all heard the statement, “Breaking Bread” and it needs no definition.  It is a way of communing with one and other.  There is even a song with the Words: James Mont­gom­e­ry, Christ­ian Psalm­ist, 1825. and the Music: “St. Ag­nes,” John B. Dykes, in Hymn­al for Use in the Eng­lish Church, by John Grey, 1866

Be known to us in breaking bread,
But do not then depart;
Savior, abide with us, and spread
Thy table in our heart.

There eat with us in love divine;
Thy body and Thy blood,
That living bread, that heavenly wine,
Be our immortal food.

“Tread the Earth Lightly” and in the meantime… may your day be filled with….Peace, light and love, 

Arlene Wright-Correll  

I grant “ONE-TIME” publishing rights

©Copyright  www.learn-america.com All rights reserved.